9.1 Introduction
9.2 Longevity and Growth Rates
9.3 Dispersal, Recruitment, and Migration
9.3.1 Recruitment
9.3.2 Non-Larval Dispersal
9.3.3 Teleplanic Larvae
9.3.4 Gene Flow as a Measure of Dispersal
9.4 Biological Interactions
9.4.1 Predation
9.4.1 Molluscs as Prey
9.4.1.2 Molluscs in Food Webs
9.4.2 Trophic Status
9.4.3 Defence Mechanisms
9.4.3.1 The Shell in Defence
9.4.3.2 Responses to the Chemical Defences of Food Items
9.4.3.3 Chemical Signalling
9.4.3.4 Molluscan Chemical Defences
9.4.3.5 Antimicrobial Secondary Metabolites and Sunscreens Associated with Gastropod Spawn
9.4.3.6 Luminescence
9.4.3.7 Aggressive Movements, Speed and Agility
9.4.3.8 Autotomy
9.4.3.9 Crypsis
9.4.3.10 Warning Colours and Behaviour – Aposematism
9.4.3.11 Spreading the Threat: Polymorphisms
9.4.3.12 Associations with Cnidarians to Ward Off Threats
9.4.4 Relationships with Other Organisms
9.4.4.1 Symbionts of Molluscs (Including Parasites)
9.4.4.2 Associations with Viruses
9.4.4.3 Associations with ‘Bacteria’
9.4.4.4 Associations with ‘Protists’
9.4.4.5 Alveolata
9.4.4.6 Associations with Fungi
9.4.4.7 Associations with ‘Plants’, Including Red and Green ‘Algae’
9.4.4.8 Associations with Animals
9.4.4.9 Associations with Arthropoda
9.4.5 Cancer-Like Diseases
9.4.6 Transfer of Symbionts to the Host
9.4.7 Parasitic Molluscs
9.4.8 Bioluminescence
9.5 Ecology
9.5.1 Ecological Functions
9.5.2 Biological Interactions
9.5.2.1 Niche Specialisation
9.5.2.2 Aggressive Conspecific and Intraspecific Behaviour
9.5.2.3 Parasites
9.5.3 Populations and Communities
9.5.3.1 Some Factors Involved in the Maintenance of Molluscan Populations
9.5.4 Chance Environmental Impacts
9.5.5 Sea Shore Ecological Studies
9.5.6 Deep-Sea Ecological Studies
9.5.7 Fresh-Water Ecological Studies
9.5.8 Terrestrial Ecological Studies
9.5.9 Keystone Species
9.5.9.1 Molluscs as Habitat Generators and Ecosystem Engineers
9.6 Abiotic Interactions – The Physio-Chemical Environment
9.6.1 Temperature
9.6.2 Salinity
9.6.3 Physical Force–Wave Action etc.
9.6.4 Habitats
9.6.5 Substrata
9.6.5.1 Hard Substrata
9.6.5.2 Living on and in Soft Substrata
9.6.5.3 Gravel, Cobble, and Boulder Substrata and Interstitial Habitats
9.6.6 Into the Water Column–Swimmers and Floaters
9.7 The Major Domains
9.7.1 Marine Habitats–Living in the Comfort Zone
9.7.1.1 Intertidal Zone
9.7.1.2 Coral Reefs
9.7.1.3 Continental Shelf
9.7.1.4 Deep-Sea
9.7.1.5 Hypoxic and Anoxic Habitats
9.7.1.6 Hydrothermal Vents and Seeps
9.7.1.7 Deep-Sea Biogenic Substrata
9.7.2 Estuaries and Other Brackish-Water Environments
9.7.2.1 Inland Seas
9.7.3 Hypersaline Environments
9.7.3.1 Hypersaline Coastal Lagoons
9.7.3.2 Inland Hypersaline Salt Lakes
9.7.3.3 Deep-Sea Brine Pools and Lakes
9.7.4 Fresh Water
9.7.4.1 Ancient Lakes
9.7.4.2 Springs and Spring-Fed Streams
9.7.5 Terrestrial
9.8 Molluscan Diversity
9.8.1 Marine Molluscan Diversity
9.8.2 Non-Marine Molluscan Diversity
9.8.2.1 Fresh-Water Molluscs
9.8.2.2 Terrestrial Molluscs
9.9 Putting It All Together – Evolutionary Trade-Offs